Concept:In Kohlberg’s pre-conventional morality, moral reasoning is based on external consequences rather than internalised values.
Explanation:Kohlberg described three levels of moral development.
The pre-conventional level is the earliest and is common in children.
At this level, rules and social expectations are seen as external to the self.
Children obey rules mainly to avoid punishment or to gain rewards.
Stage 1 is punishment–obedience orientation, where actions are judged by their physical consequences.
Stage 2 is instrumental–exchange orientation, where right action satisfies one’s own needs and allows others to do the same.
Therefore, at the pre-conventional level, the idea of internalising rules or abstract justice is not yet developed.
Rules remain outside the child’s own sense of self.
Answer:D. rules are external to the self.