(a) : Formation of gametophyte directly from sporophyte without meiosis and spore formation is apospory. The gametophyte thus has diploid number of chromosomes. Such gametophyte may form viable gametes which fuse to form tetraploid sporophyte. Apogamy is development of sporophyte directly from gametophytic tissue without fusion of gametes. Amphimixis is normal sexual reproduction. Parthenogenesis is development of embryo from egg without fertilisation.
